Development of mummification in ancient Egypt

Mummification was one of the most substantial procedures in ancient Egypt due to being relevant to the afterlife and its essential rituals. Let us try to unravel some of the amazing facts of embalming the body of the deceased in different times.

Predynastric and early dynastic

The method of encircling the limbs and digits with layers of fine linen which was impregnated with resin became the standard practice in the early dynastic and old kingdom. At Saqqara, the body of a woman dating from the second dynasty with sixteen layers of broad linen bandages was found. Also, a body prepared in this way was found by digging the same necropolis later with the fingers wrapped separately and the breasts and genitals moulded. In this early period the body was still in a semi - flexed position. Within these carefully applied linen bandages there was no tissue left , and often its decomposition had charred the inner surface of the textile , which was then in direct contact with the bones . The aim of the Egyptians at this stage was to create an acceptable resemblance to the living body, and the process employed cannot truly be called embalming.

Old kingdom

In the fourth dynasty the next stage in the development towards mummification of the body involved the evisceration of the corpse to inhibit the process of decomposition. In a tomb at Meydum in 1890 Petrie discovered the extended body of a noble called Ranefer whose body had been eviscerated and the internal organs were wrapped in resin – soaked linen and placed in a recess in the wall of burial chamber.

Prepared bodies dating to the fifth dynasty are slightly more frequent than those known from preceding periods. From the fourth dynasty, the bodies of the royal family and nobles were interred in an extended position in wooden coffins with fine stone sarcophagi, frequently decorated on the outside with palace façade paneling.

Petrie has pioneered the use of X-rays in 1898 as a non destructive technique to study mummified remains. At Deshasheh he discovered fifth dynasty burials which showed signs of dismemberment, or at least subsequent rewrapping in which the bones had been misplaced. He used an X-ray to record the proof that the wrapped foot has the bones out of order, and that the leg and arm bones are wrapped together. These bones, which still have bandages around them, are preserved in his collection at University College, London.

The method of preserving the body by external wrapping and modeling in linen remained standard through the Sixth Dynasty. A male mummy was found at Giza , and this was examined by the anatomist Derry , who found that the skin had decomposed leaving only the shredded remains and had burned the inner surface of the linen . Plaster was occasionally used on the external surface of the linen to model the features, particularly the heads instead of resin.

The embalmers of this age were not able to preserve the body, but in this way they transformed it into a virtual statue which could be entered by the spirit.

It is known from Old kingdom tomb relieves, and from those of the new kingdom, that tremendous ceremony accompanied the process of mummification and burial.

Middle Kingdom

There is little evidence for mummification from the politically disunified first intermediate period, but bodies wrapped in linen, some with cartonnage masks, and canopic jars were found at Sqarra, dating to the Ninth to Eleventh Dynasities .

A group of mummies of eleventh dynasty princesses was found in rock- cut tombs at Deir el – Bahri, signifying that an improvement in technique had taken place. Their bodies were rapidly desiccated with dry natron , which is naturally occurring salt in Egypt composed of sodium carbonate (or bicarbonate) and sodium chloride ( or sulphate) . This ensured the preservation of the tissues and then the surface of the skin was coated with resin. They were not eviscerated however, and it seems from the dilated rectum and vagina that an oleo – resin (akin to turpentine) was injected into the anus in order to dissolve the organs for removal.

In the Twelfth Dynasty (from about 2000BC) the process of mummification became further elaborated and the technique approached that of the new kingdom, although significant advances in preservation had to wait until the latter period. All the organs, except for the heart, were removed from two bodies found at Saqqara , and the cavity was stuffed with linen , which was also pushed beneath the eyelids. The tissues were not well preserved, but the face of the man was coated with resin, including plugs in the nostrils, and he had a beard and moustache.

The lady Senebtisi , found at Lisht , also had her viscera removed from a flank incision , which was then sealed with a resin soaked cloth. Her heart had been packed with linen and replaced in her body, together with linen and sawdust soaked in resin. The four canopic jars , which by this time had human heads , were found in a rotted canopic chest , and only two of them had contents, all of which were in resinous masses , resembling human organs ; One perhaps the liver, another a parcel of intestines.

New kinds of funerary figurine also appeared, called shabtis, whose task it was to undertake work that might be assigned to the deceased in the underworld. In the Middle Kingdom these inscribed mummiform figures were roughly made of wood and enclosed in a wooden model coffin. In the New kingdom they became more elaborate and were made of painted wood, stone or blue faience.

Cartonnage face masks, made of waste papyrus or linen soaked in plaster with a painted or gilded surface, and placed over the head of the mummy, became fashionable in the middle kingdom. These may represent a link with the surface mouldings on the linen employed during the old kingdom. Another innovation was the introduction of the anthropoid coffin, usually fitted within the rectangular box coffin. It copied the mummy in form and further identified the deceased with Osiris. In the second intermediate period, the outer coffin was discontinued and anthropoid coffin elaborated into the rishi type with the outspread wings of the goddess Isis and Nepthys as kites protecting and mourning the dead person. In the new kingdom the anthropoid coffin became standard with painted religious scenes.

Mummification in the new kingdom

The period from the day of death to the funeral seventy days included mummification and the accompanying ceremonies

At first the body was taken to the Per - Nefer, the house of mummification, where the first stages of the process took place. The corpse was laid on the embalming table and the decomposed softened brain was teased through the nostril with a metal hook after the ethmoid bone had been broken. Then an incision was made in the left side of the abdomen by the cutter and the lower organs, except for the kidneys, were removed by the embalmer. The diaphragm was cut and all but the heart, the seat of the mind, was removed from the chest cavity. The internal organs were washed and soaked separately in natron , then treated with hot resin , bandaged , and packed in the four canopic jars.

The cavity left was cleaned, most probably with palm wine and spices, then stuffed with temporary packing material and the body was desiccated with heaps of dry natron. The toe and finger nails were secured with string to prevent loss during drying. The process up to this point probably took about forty days, and then the body was delivered to the Wabet, the house of purification, where it was washed with Nile water, a ritualized procedure to symbolize the rising of the sun from the river and the subsidence of inundation waters. Then the cranial cavity was stuffed with resin soaked linen, and the body cavity, emptied of temporary packing, was packed with linen bags of sawdust or myrrh soaked in resin, and the abdominal incision was sewn up . The surface of the body was rubbed with a mixture of cedar oil, wax, natron and gum, and then dusted with spices. The nose was plugged, and frequently pads of linen were inserted under the eyelids, although onions were sometimes used. The whole body was then coated with molten resin to close the pores and protect the surface. This resulted in the superior preservation so noticeable when compared to the tissue loss on the bodies of earlier periods. The bandaging of the body was a deliberate process over the latter part of the allotted seventy days. It seems that the embalming was over by the fifty – second day.

An enveloping shroud was wrapped around the body and then the bandaging continued. As the layered bandaging grew, amulets were placed in position as was sometimes done in the past. The head rest amulet, frequently made of hematite, was placed under the head and the udjat eye of Horus appeared as an individual amulet or on the plate placed over the embalming incision. All these amulets and others, such as the ankh sign, served a magical purpose in protecting the individual and renewing his specific strengths.

The mummy was then placed in its coffin on a sledge beneath a shrine and transported on a ferry to the west bank of the Nile where it was then drawn by oxen and men. Two women representing the goddess Isis and Nepthys, called the Great and little kites, proceeded with the sledge, accompanied by a band of mourners and priests, with libations of milk being poured before the way. All the grave goods were carried by servants at the near behind a second sledge transporting the canopic chest. At the tomb the procession was met by a group of dancers and a lector priest.

Second Intermediate and new kingdom mummies

For the second intermediate and new kingdom periods, the collection of royal mummies in the Cairo museum, Egypt, provides a wealth of information. Between 1966 and 1971 the mummies were the subject of investigations by X-ray which added more to our knowledge of the physical condition of the royal families of the eighteenth, ninteenth and twentieth dynasities.

The tomb of Tutankhamun is the best known in the Valley of the Kings and the smallest. The young king's body was not only intact within his solid gold coffin and funerary mask but also rested within two outer mummiform coffins, a sarcophagus and four golden shrines. Such lavish protection, which included 143 amulets within the bandaging, did not ensure the good preservation of the body, which had been burned by the lavish application of resinous liquid. The king was about eighteen to twenty years old when he died. His upper and lower wisdom teeth had just erupted, but his body does not show any pathological conditions which would have caused his death.

Twenty – First dynasty and later periods

The reburials provided the twenty – first dynasty restorers with the opportunity to observe the remains and they noticed that, although the new kingdom methods were excellent, they had not resulted in a totally lifelike appearance, because of the desiccation of the corpses. A change in the technique of mummification therefore resulted, with packing being placed under the skin through various slits in the torso and limbs. The surface was then often painted, with artificial eyes inserted, so that a doll like appearance was created. The packing materials were usually mixtures of linen, fat, soda, and sawdust, and changes in these substances over time have caused some of the bodies to swell. The packing within Queen Henttawi's cheeks burst open, so her painted features are no longer attractive, although her head is adorned by an elaborate coiffure of twisted black string. Al this stage , the viscera were wrapped around genii and re – inserted into the body cavity. Queen Henttawi 's embalming wound was sealed with a gold embalming plate bearing the eye of Horus .

Reference: Egyptian mummies by Barbara Adams

Intriguing metalworking in Egyptian artifacts

Mining and smelting

In ancient Egypt metals were mined in several areas, by open cast as well as by underground mining. Gold and copper were the first ones processed by the early Egyptian metalworkers. Later in the development of Egyptian metallurgy, electrum silver, iron, tin, bronze, lead and platinum were also worked. In addition, traces of nickel, zinc, arsenic, antimony and cobalt have been detected in small amounts in metal artifacts. Metals were also imported by trade or as a tribute from neighboring countries, especially gold and copper, of which great quantities were used.

Melting, casting and plate production

After the local or imported crude metal had been delivered to the storehouses of temples and palaces, it was weighed and registered by the Egyptian temple or palace administration. Before a quantity of metal was dispensed from the storehouses to the metalworkers for further processing, the metal had to be weighed again, to control the stock of metals and to prevent embezzlement.

Melting the metal

The first job which had to be done by the metalworkers in the temple or palace workshops was the melting of the crude metal. Egyptian pictorial and inscriptional sources depict the melting of copper, gold, silver, tin bronze or leaded tin bronze. In Old and Middle kingdom times, the melting of copper or arsenic copper for the production of vessels and tools for daily use was very common. In the course of the Middle Kingdom and in later period's tin bronze and leaded tin bronze were used. Silver and gold served throughout Egyptian history as the basic materials for objects of royal use or for the funerary and temple equipment.

The metal had to be melted because large ingots or other shapes of crude metal, which were customary in the trade , had to be refined or alloyed for casting or split up into smaller portions for further treatment by smiths.

The metal was melted in one or more crucibles using hearths depending on the amount required. The hearths were charcoal- fired. Charcoal was burnt extensively in the eastern desert and the Sinai. Temperatures of about 1000C (1800F)or even more could be achieved if the embers of the charcoal fire were aroused with suitable tools. In Earlier times fans of foliage might have been employed to provide a draught.

In the old and Middle Kingdom Egyptian metalworkers or melters used blowpipes consisting of reeds with clay tips . With blowpipes a strong blast of air could be directed precisely on to the glowing charcoal below the bottom of the crucible.

There is evidence that Middle Kingdom metalworkers used skin bellows, as mentioned in a text written on a coffin , although skin bellows, probably manufactured from the skin of a goat or a gazelle , have not been found in Egyptian depictions. Much more effective than fans, blowpipes or skin bellows were pot , drum or dish bellows . The dishes were of pottery, wood or stone fitted with skin or leather coverings.

Casting

A small limestone casting mould was found in situ beside one of the small hearths at the excavated site.. This mould was not used for producing objects by open –mould casting but to split the molten metal into smaller portions for further treatment by the smiths, who manufactured plates and sheet metal from the small portions. Moulds of this kind are shown on paintings and relieves in private tombs as early as the Old Kingdom where a metalworker is pouring the molten metal into the mould. To protect his hands, the worker used stones or blocks of wood to hold the very hot crucible. Sometimes, while the metal was being poured, another worker tried to hold back any contamination in the crucible.

Plate production

After being melted, refined and divided into portions, the cooled metal was passed to smiths or blacksmiths for plate or sheet production. Egyptian blacksmiths used very simple tools. The metal was beaten on an anvil made of stone (probably of basalt, diorite or granite) which was placed on a wooden block to absorb the hammering. The metalworkers beat the plates with simple hammer stones without a shaft .Two kinds of hammer stone were in use: one with a flat face and the other with a rounded one. A flat hammer stone was needed for smoothing the metal. While a rounded one was used for chasing. Smoothing and chasing hammer stones are depicted in private tombs from Old Kingdom times to the Ptolemaic period.

Egyptian metalworkers had mastered the technique for annealing as early as the predynastic Period. In the course of the chasing process the beaten piece of metal become hard and brittle and further treatment of the cold metal could cause it to crack. The piece had therefore to , to be heated or annealed, which caused a rearrangement of the crystalline structure of the metal and made it ductile again.

Gold leaf

The gold beaters used hammer stones to beat the foil, which became thinner in the course of the manufacturing process. Silver and electrum also worked to foil, or the thinnest leaf thickness. Objects of a less rare material were often gilded or silver plated. Gold, silver and electrum foils or leaves could be used to cover wooden furniture, statues, coffins and models of daily life manufactured for funerary equipment. Stone vessels, the walls and doors of temples and objects of base metal were covered with precious metal by wrapping the foil round the edge of the object or by inserting the edges of the foil into grooves cut in the surface of the underlying material.

In New Kingdom times or even earlier, Egyptian metallurgist mastered advanced techniques of gold refining in order to produce very pure gold, free of impurities which would be beaten out of the thinnest gold leaf.

The thinner gold leaf could be stuck to surfaces with an adhesive. For the decoration of wooden or stone objects with gold leaf a ground of gypsum plaster or a similar material was often applied first to the material before the gold leaf was stuck to it. It seems probable that metalworkers only produced the gold leaf while the gilding was done by the workers in wood, stone or wax who manufactured the objects to be gilded.

As described in an Egyptian papyrus of the Roman Period, metal gilders of that time knew the chemical process of fire-gilding with gold amalgam. Gold amalgam was applied to the base - metal object to be gilded. In the course of the fire –gilding process, the mercury content of the gold amalgam vaporized and the gold remained on the surface of the metal objects. As mercury fumes are extremely toxic, fire gilders or those living in the neighborhood of a gilding workshop were always in danger of mercury poisoning.

Reference: Egyptian metalworking and tools by Bernd Scheel

Variety and vitality of boats in ancient Egypt

Types of boats of Ancient Egypt

The various types of boats of ancient Egypt are known from the relief depicted on the walls of the tombs and temples, as well as from the remains of true vessels and models which have been discovered. They fall into two overall categories.

Boats of everyday use

These were used for Nile transport, for example, of huge blocks of stone from the granite quarries of Aswan to their place of setting up as monuments throughout the river valley. The drawings of Hatshepsut's temple at "Deir el- Bahri" at "Luxor" show two huge granite obelisks, each hewn from a simple piece of stone, being carried down river. But boats were also used on seas, for instance the transfer of goods imported from other seas. Vessels formed of bound papyrus stems were preferred for fishing in the marshes of the Delta, as in invariably shown on tomb walls, but wooden boats were used for funerary purposes, to carry the pharaoh's body in his pilgrimage to the holy places and from the worldly abode to his place of burial.

Divine Boats:

These were symbolic vessels used as either a divine bark and placed in the holy of holies of the temple for the statue of god and carried on priests' shoulder on visits to other temples or solar boats figuratively used by the deceased accompanying the solar god and other gods in their trip to the other world. This type of boat is found painted on the walls of the temples and particularly of the royal tombs, but is also represented among the tomb's funerary furniture, to help the deceased in his journey to the after- life.

Cheops boat and its wonderful museum

Cheops Boat

The discovery of the Cheops Boat stands as one of the most important archeological finds in Egypt – and in the world- in modern times, since the discovery of the tomb of "Tutankhamun". Its inherent importance lies in the face that this is most ancient vessel found in perfect condition anywhere in the world and in an astonishing state of preservation after more than 45 centuries hidden under the sands of the "Giza" plateau.

There are two diverging concepts among archaeologist about the function and nature of the Cheops Boat. Some believe that it was a " Solar boat intended for use by the deceased pharaoh in his eternal life when, united with the solar god Re, he made his eternal journey across the sky from east to west by day and from west to east at night, illuminating the worlds of both living and dead. According to the story , the pharaoh needed two boats for his journey , one for day, the other for night. The other theory is that this was a funerary boat, actually used to carry the body of the late pharaoh in his pilgrimage to "Abydos" and the Cenotaph of the god "Osiris" before burial in the pyramid. Two boats would also be needed on this Journey, one to sail south, to Abydos , and another to return to the north for burial at Gizeh. In this case the boats would differ, one needing oars, the other sails.

Cheops Boat Museum

After the discovery of the boat, it was necessary to build a museum over the pit in which it had been found, it is designed to complement the vessel in both size and shape, and to take advantage of all of the latest advances in modern display methods, in order that the visitor can view it from all sides. The project wad designed with an outer shell of steel – reinforced concrete and the façade of transparent glass to make it complement its stern surroundings as well as to conceal its vast size and unusual shape. The use of glass also served the purpose of allowing the visitor a visual link with the nearby pyramid, removing any scene of isolation from the archeological site. The glass is double – glazed in massive style – each pane is 8 cm thick and the air - space a further 8 cm, giving a total thickness of 24 cm to insulate the interior from both heat and noise outside. The museum is also air conditioned, with temperature and humidity both controlled to maintain the unique vessel in perfect condition.

The main design of the museum

Designed in the shape of a huge boat itself to suit the nature of the artifact it contains, the museum has the Cheops Boat centrally located in its internal space, both horizontally and vertically, as well as housing the pit in which the vessel was found. This is one of the main elements of the display allowing the visitor a comprehensive impression of how the boat was preserved down the years. Also in the designer's mind was the fact that the museum should be capable of being extended to incorporate the second boat, when it is eventually revealed. The boat is surrounded by terraces on different levels, to allow the visitor to examine all its various details from below, above and all sides, including directly underneath. The terraces are so placed that an overall view of all aspects might be gained from a single continuing walk around the exhibit. The lower parts of the museum's exterior walls are covered with mud –brick, as an added insulation against the sun's heat, and on the interior the lower walls are faced with concrete slabs to increase the efficacy of the air conditioning and a fire – extinguishing system, and all the electrical circuits laid on when it was originally built have recently been isolated from the mains supply as an additional safety factor.

Lighting of the museum

It is generally accepted that for best results museums should have their objects displayed on the walls, with natural lighting from above. But this museum has a special and even unique nature, as the only one in the world intended to display a single object alone – an ancient boat 43.4 m in length and 7 m high – with the result that in both appearance and construction it differs from all others, breaking all the usual design rules.

Long experience has proved that artificial light, even if all possible precautions are taken, will have some effect on museum objects, and since the wood of the boat is so very ancient it has been decided to depend completely on natural lighting. All artificial lighting has been removed, and all electrical circuits throughout the display rooms cut off as an additional safeguard.

Reference: From the book, Museum of Cheops boat

Discovery of a tunnel inside the tomb of king "Seti I"

Great success in the complete excavation of a 174 m long tunnel in the tomb of king" Seti I" after several seasons of work that began in November 2007, was achieved by dr. Hawass, Secretary general of the supreme council of antiquities and his mission. They've been searching for this tunnel for over twenty years in the west bank necropolis. The tunnel was cut into the bedrock near the end of the beautifully decorated tomb of "Seti I". In addition to excavating the tunnel, the team braced the walls and ceiling with metal supports. They also built a wooden walkway over the original stone staircase of the tunnel to preserve it and installed a mining car system to remove rubble from the team’s excavations. During their work, the mission uncovered many shabtis and pottery fragments that dated to the eighteenth dynasty (1569-1315 BC). Several limestone fragments, as well as a small boat model made of faience were also found. During their excavation of the staircase, the team found that three of the steps were decorated with red graffiti.

Another unique excavation of the tunnel took place in 1960 under the direction of "Sheikh Ali Abdel Rassoul". His team was able to reach a depth of 136m but they had to stop their excavation because it was too hard to breath. Upon reaching the end of the 136m section , which had been partially excavated by Abdel-Rasoul's workmen , dr.Hawass’s team was shocked to uncover a descending passage which measures 25.60m in length and 2.6m wide. The mission eventually uncovered a fifty-four step, descending staircase. After the first descending passage, a second staircase measuring 6 meters long was cut into the rock. At the beginning of this passage the team found a false door decorated with hieratic text that reads: “Move the door jamb up and make the passage wider." These written instructions must have been left from the architect to the workmen who were carving out the tunnel.

On entering inside the tunnel of King Seti I for the first time, It was noticed that the walls were not well finished and there were remains of preliminary sketches of decoration that would be placed on the walls.. A second staircase was found inside the tunnel. It appears that the last step was never finished and the tunnel ends abruptly after the second staircase. The conclusion of dr. Hawas was that the workmen and artists first finished the original tomb of "Seti I" during his twelve-year reign and then began to construct the tunnel. It appears that "Seti I" was trying to construct a secret tomb inside a tomb. It is likely that when "Seti I died", his son, Ramesses II (1304-1237BC), had to stop the work and bury his father. dr. Hawass believes that Ramesses II continued where his father had left off and constructed his own tunnel within his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. The Egyptian mission is currently working in the tomb of Ramesses II to preserve the wall paintings and to look for a similar tunnel to the one in the tomb of Seti I.

Mysteries of Khufu's Pyramid and Djedi

"Djedi" is a joint international-Egyptian mission, which dr. Zahi Hawas, secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, named after Djedi, the magician who "Khufu" consulted when planning the layout of his pyramid.

The purpose of this project is to send a robotic tunnel explorer into the two “air shafts” that lead from the Queen’s Chamber of the Great Pyramid of Khufu to gather evidence to determine the purpose of the shafts.He selected the "Djedi team" during a competition that he coordinated to pick the best possible robot to explore the shafts in the Great Pyramid.

This international team is experienced in the development and deployment of systems to meet real world challenges, including systems for space, search and rescue and medical devices, as well as inspection of stone structures.

"Djedi team" hopes to uncover the meaning of these airshafts by drilling through the doors that are blocking them. The team has made to previous examinations of the airshafts in July and December of 2009. The team is hoping to gather as much evidence as possible to try to piece together the purpose of the airshafts, while at the same time ensuring that the Great Pyramid is not damaged in any way.

The story of the discovery of the hidden doors began in 1992, when "Zahi Hawas" made the decision to close the Great Pyramid to visitors in order to begin a project to reduce the humidity inside and to correct the damage that was occurring from the accumulation of salt. Each visitor who enters the pyramid leaves behind about 20 grams of moisture from their breath and sweat. When it evaporates, this moisture leaves behind salt deposits, which erode the stone over time.

In 1992, It was found that the humidity inside the pyramid was hovering around 85%, and salt deposits covered the walls of the Grand Gallery hence the salt was cleaned from the walls of the Grand Galley, but it was known that to save the pyramid from irreversible damage, a way should be found to reduce the humidity inside.

Dr." Zahi Hawa" contacted some specialists for installing a ventilation and humidity control system in the pyramid. The first step was to clear the two shafts, each about 20 cm wide and 14 cm high, that lead from the King’s Chamber to the exterior of the monument. Then they installed ventilation equipment in the shafts. This project was very successful, allowing reduction and stabilization of the humidity inside the pyramid.

The shafts themselves are a great mystery. In addition to the two that extend from the King’s Chamber, there are two in the Queen’s chamber as well - one in the northern wall, and one opposite it in the southern wall. No one knows why these shafts were included in the pyramid’s design. An important part of the work in the shafts in the King’s Chamber was sending a small robot inside with a camera attached, to

inspect them along their entire lengths.

Reference: from an article , by Zahi Hawas

Cleopatra's Items in Franklin institute on exhibit

An exhibit focusing on one of ancient Egypt's most enigmatic rulers, Cleopatra, and featuring never-before-displayed artifacts, has opened in Philadelphia.

Cleopatra: The Search for the Last Queen of Egypt, on exhibit at the Franklin Institute, is a splashy show with videos, a glass walkway and lots of sound and light.

At the heart of the 150-artifact collection, which opened its doors Saturday, is an attempt to uncover the mystery behind the queen. None of the items at the exhibit have ever before been shown to the public.

Little evidence has survived of Cleopatra, who at 39 years of age chose a suicidal snake bite rather than surrender to the conquering Romans in 30 BC. The Roman general Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar, ordered all her images destroyed. Her life story has been subjected to much speculation and interpretation, largely through popular depictions, notably in a 1963 Elizabeth Taylor film.

The first part of the exhibit concentrates on discoveries made by underwater archeologist, Franck Goddio, who has spent 20 years off the coast of Alexandria, Egypt, excavating Cleopatra's palace and two temples. Earthquakes and tsunamis submerged ancient Alexandria more than 1,500 years ago.

Items on display from Goddio's work include gold coins and 4.5-metre-high granite figures.

The second part of the exhibit includes finds of "Zahi Hawass", a celebrated archeologist who is secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo.

He has been searching for the lost tomb of Cleopatra and her lover, the Roman general "Mark Antony", and has uncovered mummies, jewelry and sculptures at three sites west of Alexandria.

The show will be at the Philadelphia museum until January, and then is expected to tour the U.S. at five locations yet to be announced.

Reference: CBC- News

Farmers and Egyptian bread

In ancient Egypt there were three seasons. In the first season "summer" the Nile flooded the farm land. In the second season the land was no longer flooded and farmers ploughed sowed seeds and dug new irrigation canals.

A wall painting showed a man and a woman ploughing and sowing seeds Ploughs were made of wood. They were pulled by oxen and used to turn over the soil ready for the seed to be sown.

The Egyptian grew barley and a kind of wheat called emmer. The grain was made into flour and kneaded with water into dough to make bread.

How ancient Egyptian made bread in details?

Grain is knocked out of the emmer using a pestle and mortar.

A stone is rolled over the grain to make fine flour.

Flour and water are mixed to make dough.

The dough is baked in a cone- shaped oven

Both rich and poor people ate bread and drank beer. They also ate fruits such as dates and figs. Those who could afford it would have meat, fish and wine. Meat from ducks and geese and "fish caught in the Nile" was pickled and dried in the sun.

Reference : Ancient Egypt - by Martin Forrest

Rampant Tut-mania in New York

Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs," now on view in Manhattan until Jan. 2, 2011, has unleashed rampant Tut-mania in New York, just like it did at the exhibition’s previous seven stops. This is last venue for this touring blockbuster. A selection of about 50 pieces unearthed from the tomb of King Tut (ca. 1343 BC-1333 BC) is being shown with about 80 more items from the 18th Dynasty in Egypt.

Among the most intriguing pieces from Tut’s tomb is a painted wooden torso of Tut. He may have been considered both a god and a human being, but the human dominates in this startlingly realistic bust, wearing a royal crown and linen shirt, but without arms. It projects a lively presence, but its purpose is one of the many mysteries still unanswered about Tut.

But the most impressive pieces are the many fine gold, personal items found with Tutankhamun’s mummy. The show’s grand finale consists of a replica of the mummy chamber with a handful of finely wrought, mostly gold objects -- a jeweled pectoral, made of gold, silver, glass and semiprecious stones, a gold diadem, and a gold knife and sheath too delicate for this world but perfect for use in a royal afterlife among others.

This is the second Tut exhibition to tour the U.S. and very different from the earlier 1976-79 King Tut tour. Only a handful of pieces are the same, so fans of that show at the Metropolitan Museum will want to visit the Discovery Center to see the new material. This show also contains some of the latest scientific research on Tut. It’s explained along with a replica of Tut’s mummy at the very end of the exhibition.

The King Tut shows are more than simple cultural exchanges, of course; they’re designed for fundraising as well, and this tour should help pay for a new museum to house antiquities in Cairo. Admission is $27.50 for adults.

In publicity for the show, there is a golden statue of King Tut that looks like the gilded funerary mask of King Tut’s mummy, which appeared in the last exhibition. The golden mask won’t leave Cairo again by order of the Egyptian government. What you are actually seeing is a much smaller, but also exquisite piece, one of four miniature coffins for the viscera of Tut. The Egyptians embalmed the body, placing the heart back into it, but putting the stomach, intestines, and lungs and, in this case, the liver in separate containers.

Tut’s liver caffeinate is made of gold, with inlays of colored glass and carnelian, and obsidian and rock crystal for his eyes. He holds a flail, symbol of royal power, and a crook, symbol of the king as shepherd of his people. It measures only about ten inches high, yet it exudes power.

One of the favorite pieces isn’t made of gold. It’s a carved-calcite cylindrical cosmetic jar with a recumbent lion, representing the king, on the lid. Instead of feet, the jar rests on four heads of traditional enemies of Egypt, two Nubians of carved black stone, and two western Asians carved in red stone. The exterior walls of the vessel are incised and painted blue. They show a lion attacking a bovine with the help of dogs.

For Tut enthusiasts, the Metropolitan Museum of Art is presenting a show of finds from the embalming site of Tut, "Tutankhamun’s Funeral," through Sept. 2, 2010. The small show has more artifacts than art but the importance of floral collars and the beads they incorporated are worth a look.

Reference: an article written by N.F. Karlins